Human neurons undergo protracted functional maturation into adulthood

Human cognitive development is uniquely prolonged^1–3, reflecting the extended postnatal maturation of the cerebral cortex where cell-type differentiation^4,5, synaptogenesis^6,7, myelination⁸ and transcriptional regulation^5,9,10 all follow protracted developmental timelines. However, when human cortical neurons reach functional electrophysiological maturity and how their developmental trajectory compares to other species remains unknown. Here we show through patch-clamp recordings of human temporal cortex from infancy to adulthood that supragranular pyramidal neurons exhibit pronounced neoteny of their functional properties, with physiological maturation continuing well into adulthood. Comparing human and mouse developmental trajectories reveals human neurons are on a much slower developmental timeline, maturing physiologically hundreds of times slower than mouse and 2-6 times slower than would be predicted from anatomical brain growth differences between species.

This reflects a fundamentally different allometric relationship between physiological and anatomical maturation; while mouse neuronal physiology closely tracks brain growth, human physiological development follows its own extended timeline. This slow maturation results in different stages of cognitive development being supported by functionally distinct neuronal populations, with the progression from infancy to middle age characterized by specific electrophysiological profiles. Notably, a neuronal subtype thought to be human-specific, with electrophysiological traits that enhance computational capacity, appears only in late adolescence or early adulthood. This extreme protraction of neurophysiological development provides a cellular basis for prolonged human cognitive maturation, demonstrating that neuronal physiological neoteny represents a fundamental evolutionary adaptation in human brain development.